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DISCUSSION » Full Discussion |
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The Giovio Globes are identical in size, measuring 11.5 inches (29 cm.) in diameter. Both globes sit in four posted wooden stands that seem somewhat undersized relative to the globes and are probably of later origin. Both stands have manuscript horizon rings that are based on the Gregorian calendar, a fact that suggests a later date for the rings, as well. The globes are in good condition, considering their presumed age. On the terrestrial globe, there are some obvious restorations in the Mediterranean (where there must have been some serious losses) and in South America (seemingly a repair of a noticeable crack). The eastern hemisphere, particularly in the north, is very dirty and somewhat difficult to read. In addition, the oceans would appear to have been painted blue at some point subsequent to manufacture. The occasional gilding seen throughout the terrestrial globe and the red outlining of the continents also appear to be a post manufacture change, as well, possibly added at the time of the restoration. On the celestial globe, the sky, except for the constellations and blank cartouche, has been painted blue (a different blue from the oceans in the terrestrial globe) by a later hand.
It is very possible that the famous Renaissance historian Paolo Giovio (d.1553), given his well known interest in geography, would have owned a pair of globes. Giovio once owned the Cellere Codex, now in the possession of the Morgan Library, that records Verrazanno's epic 1524, as well as a Battista Agnese atlas now owned by the University of Pensylvania. Moreover, Ramusio's Navigationi et Viaggi includes a description of Moscovie written by Giovio. Yet neither Giovio's will, nor those of several of his immediate descendents mention any globes. This is not surprising, though, as these documents generally focus on expensive household and personal items. None of the documents reviewed, for instance, mention the Agnese Atlas, auctioned by Christie’s in 1976 and clearly once owned Giovio. Again, more work needs to be done with the wills and inventories of Giovio’s heirs.
Using infrared reflectography, it was possible to read through much of the overpainted cartouche on the terrestrial globe. An educated guess, aided by reference to the inscription discussed in the following section, results in the following transcription:
“A SERENISSIMVM / EMANUELEM PHI- / LIBE[RTUM] Sabau- / di[ensum] Et Subal / pinoru[m] Duce[m].” Thus the cartouche contains a dedication to Emanuele Filiberto, who ruled as Duke of Savoy (and Piedmont) from 1553 to 1580. Filiberto also served as Governor General of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559. Of course the dedication to Filiberto would seem tp conflict somewhat with the idea that Paolo Giovio once owned the globes. Giovio died the year that Filiberto became Duke of Savoy and two years before Filiberto assumed the position of Governor General of the Netherlands Fiorini and a Matching Pair of Globes in Rome? The existence of a matching set of globes to the Giovio Globes is suggested by a passage in Mateo Fiorini’s Sphere terresti e celesti di autore italiano… (Rome 1899). In a footnote on page 284, Fiorini mentions a pair of globes that had recently passed into the hands of the Museo astronomico di Roma. According to Fiorini, the globes in question are the same size (90 cm. in circumference) as the Giovio Globes (and as Vopel’s 1536 celestial globe, see below). More importantly, Fiorini notes that the terrestrial globe had a dedication to Emanuele Filiberto that he reported as Philibertum Sabaudiensum Et Subalpinorum Ducem. This (partial?) inscription appears to match with the partially revealed lettering of the Giovio terrestrial globe inscription. The cartouche on the Roman celestial globe (blank on the Giovio Globe) mentions one Heronymi di Boncompagnis, most likely a relative of Ugo di Boncompagni, who reigned as Pope Gregory XIII from 1572 to 1585. Fiorini speculates that Heronymi may have commissioned the globe. Fiorini’s report of the inscriptions, both seemingly incomplete, suggests that he had not seen the Roman globes and that he did not receive the full text from whoever supplied the text to him. The globes are mentioned only in a footnote, way out of sequence in Fiorini’s chronological account of antique globes in Italy. E. L. Stevenson, in his Terrestrial and Celestial Globes (New Haven 1921, Vol. I, p. 165), picks up Fiorini’s reference, but muddles the picture further by attributing the terrestrial globe to Emanuele Filiberto and the celestial globe to Hieronymo de Boncompagni! Stevenson states that “further reference to these globes has not been obtainable, there being no mention of the same in a communication received by the author from this observatory.” If these Roman globes somehow have survived to today, they may hold the key to the origin of the Giovio Globes. Otherwise, the Giovio Globes, themselves must be examined for clues as to their origin. To a great extent, the NY celestial globe appears to be a very close variant of Caspar Vopel’s celestial globe of 1536. At 29 cm in diameter, the Giovio Globe is the same size as Vopel’s original globe, as well as that of two sets engraved gores, now in the Nicolai Collection of the Wurttembergische Landesbibliothek (Stuttgart), that were copied from the Vopel original. More importantly the positions and depictions of the constellations on the Giovio Globe are, for the most part, nearly identical to those of the Vopel globe. See the following example (NY above, Vopel below): At a first glance, these two depictions of Leo (and the respective depictions of the other constellations, as well) seem almost indistinguishable from each other. Close examination, though, reveals many distinct, if not so readily apparent, differences. For instance, note the difference in the respective lettering of “Tropicus Cancri,” or the use of the short “s’ in Asini and Praesepe in the Giovio Globe versus the long “s” in the Vopel globe. Further inspection will reveal other subtle differences, as in the shading of the recumbent Leo or the presence of cross hatching in the degrees of the elliptic of the NY globe and the absence of such cross hatching on the Vopel globe. One obvious difference between the two globes is that the Giovio Globe does not have the identifying cartouche found above Auriga on the Vopel globe. The Giovio Globe also lacks many of the star names that appear on the Vopel globe. On the other hand, the Giovio Globe, unlike the Vopel globe, labels both the Arctic and Antarctic circles. But the most interesting and revealing difference between the two globes is the appearance of a seated male youth (Phaeton) at the end of the river Eridanus on the Giovio Globe. (See below, left):
This figure is not included on the Vopel globe, or in the Nicolai Collection gores that copy the Vopel globes. The first known appearance of such a figure occurs on globe gores published by Francois Demongenet about 1560 (See above right, from a set of gores by Demongenet, now in Nicolai Collection). This seated male figure is part of the so-called Demongenet tradition, which includes many globes and gores produced subsequent to 1560. Two star/cluster labels present on the Giovio Globe but not on the Vopel globe, ACARNAR and HIRCVS, also fall within the Demongenet tradition. To conclude, the celestial Giovio Globe, to a great extent, is based, on the 1536 Caspar Vopel celestial globe, but with an important variation that stems from the later Demongenet tradition in globe making. While it is possible that the depiction of Phaeton on the Giovio Globe and on the Demongenet 1560 globe are derived from a common, earlier source (or even that Demongenet copied from the Giovio Globe), it seems more likely that the Giovio Globe’s Phaeton figure is copied from the Demongenet globe. Such a conclusion would suggest a date subsequent to 1560 for the manufacture of the NY celestial globe, a date inconsistent with the notion that the globe once belonged Paolo Giovio, but consistent with the globe’s dedication to Emanuel Filiberto. Placement of the Giovio Globe within the Demongenet tradition, which was most widespread throughout southern France and Northern Italy, is also consistent with the hypothesis developed below, that the globes are of Northern Italian origin. For a table of constellations with images of specific constellations, follow this link.
The Geography of the Terrestrial Globe As may be seen in the example below, the Giovio terrestrial globe follows very closely the geography of Gerard Mercator’s 1541 terrestrial globe.
A closer look at this detail, though, shows a significant difference. On the Giovio Globe, above the word “HISPANIA’” a river, labeled indiscinctly and upside down as "S. Anna" (?), winds inland towards some mountains. No such river or mountains appear of the Mercator Globe. The plate appears to have been reworked in this area. In a similar manner, throughout the Giovio Globe, the configuration of the continents appears nearly identical to that of the Mercator 1541 globe, but a close look reveals numerous differences, of which the most critical are listed below. A more detailed discussion of each of these differences, any one of which may offer important clues concerning the date of and place of origin of the globe, may be accessed through the Giovio/Mercator Variance Table & Discussion.
Clearly most of these differences relate to European exploration subsequent to the 1541 issuance of the Mercator globe, including Orellana’s 1541-1542 descent of the Amazon, Valdivia’s 1540-1547 explorations of western South America, Cabrillo’s 1542-1543 coasting of the western North America and Coronado’s 1540-1542 exploration of the American Southwest.
Specific areas of the Giovio Globe may be selected and viewed through the Master Terrestrial Table or compared with their Mercator counterparts through Mercator Comapison Table. To go directly to the above-noted areas where the Giovio terrestrial globe differs markedly from its Mercator prototype, please follow the link to the Giovio/Mercator Variance Table & Discussion. To view several of these areas in comparison to the same areas on closely related Italian flat maps, please link to the Giovio Globe Italian Correspondence Table. This second table may also be of use in researching the Toponymy of the Giovio Globe.
First, both the 1541 Mercator terrestrial globe and the Giovio Globe have large cartouches in the Atlantic Ocean containing a numbered list of European cities that serves to locate numerous European cities, cities that would otherwise be impossible to locate due to the overcrowding. Each number in each cartouche is matched by a number on the continent of Europe at the approximate location of the respective city. As can be seen on the accompanying European Name Place Table, the two lists are essentially identical, but with one vital difference. On the New York globe, the list of Italian cities has been expanded and reordered, and the addition of Verona, Mantua, Ferrara, Siena and Perugia reinforces the suspicion that the globe may be of Italian origin. Note that neither Milan nor Turin (both absent from Mercator’s globe) appear on the Giovio Globe list. This omission leads the speculation that the maker of the Giovio Globe might have inscribed Milan (almost for certain) and Turin (possibly, particularly in light of the globe’s dedication to Emanuele Filiberto) directly into their proper spots in northern Italy. However, this speculation cannot be supported by reference to the globe, as the most of Italy has been worn away over time and a clumsy repair shows little detail. Second, and most obviously, the toponymy (as well as the geography, see above) of newly discovered regions on the Giovio Globe differ totally from that of its earlier prototype. The toponymy of several selected regions may be viewed by clicking on the links below: The first four links related to newly discovered regions, while the last two links refer to areas where the Giovio Globe follows closely the toponymy of the Mercator Globe:
An examination of the terrestrial globe’s numerous legends and inscriptions provides important hints as to its origin. As might be expected, the globe shares many legends and inscriptions with its 1541 Mercator prototype. A number of these shared inscriptions are listed in the accompanying Master Table of Legends and Inscriptions , bordered in light green and light blue.
All six of these inscriptions (well five for certain and the sixth almost certainly) appear on Giacomo Gastaldi’s spectacular nine sheet world map of 1561, although the Gastaldi inscriptions, are in Italian, not Latin. Several of these Italian inscriptions also appear on various Paolo Forlani maps of the 1560's. However two of the inscriptions (the "buffalo" inscription in North America and the "spirits" inscription in Siberia) do not appear on any Forlani map. Thus the Glovio globe's inscriptions would seem to have a close connection to the Gastaldi world map, in particular.
In both the Mercator and the Giovio globe, the prome meridian, following Ptolemaic practice, passes through the Canary Islands. However, Mercator has drawn his prime meridian is a simple line, no different from any other longitudinal line, while the creator of the Giovio Globe has chosen to emphasize his prime meridian by thickening it and by dividing it into degrees. By contrast, Mercator gives equal emphasis to the equator and the ecliptic, while the ecliptic on the Giovio Globe is only a thin line labeled “zodiacus.”Three sets of numbers, in approximate horizontal columns, appear to the left of the Giovio Globe’s prime meridian. Similar columns of numbers, actual four in number, appear aside the prime meridian in Caspar Vopell's large world map of 1545. The set closest to the meridian, labeled paralleli on the Giovio Globe and paralleli climatum distinctores by Vopel, apparently relate to some as yet undeciphered system of climate zones. The middle column of numbers on the Giovio Globe, labeled climata represent another system of climate zones. This column corresponds to a similar Vopel column labeled vera climatum distributio. This same system appears around the perimeter of the oval on Gastaldi’s great 1561 World Map. The third column (the farthest from the meridian), labeled hores dies artificial minulis maxima on the Vopel map, represent the maximum hours of daylight (darkness) at different latitudes. A fourth column on the Vopel map, the climata veterum, representing an ancient In addition, it should be noted that the Giovio Globe lacks both the web of loxodromes and the star indications found on Mercator’s globe. Finally, the bulge of West Africa on the Giovio Globe goes not pass across the prime meridian, a change from the Mercator globe. In comparison, on both the Vopel World Map of 1545 and Gastaldi's World Map of 1561, the westward bulge stops short of the prime meridian. In some other Gastaldi derived maps, though, the bluge does pass through the Prime Meridian, though this may be due to a slightly different location of the Meridian relative to the Caneries. In any event, close inspection of the Giovio Globe reveals that the coast of West Africa is indistinct in this area and may have been altered subsequent to printing.
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Land Creatures, Sea Creatures, Ships and Islands
Like its Mercator prototype, the Giovio terrestrial globe features numerous, often fanciful, sea creatures throughout its oceans. The two globes seem to share only one of the creatures, named Cetus (?) on Mercator’s globe and Cere (?) on the Giovio Globes. The other creatures on the Giovio Globe seem to derive from a number of sources, as may be seen at the accompanying link. As on the Mercator globe, several of Giovio Globe creatures have been named, though it is often difficult to make out the precise names.
Unlike Mercator’s terrestrial globe, the Giovio Globe depicts numerous ships sailing its ocean seas. These vessels include three chubby carracks, a ship with only a square mainsail and a furled lateen sail visible, a single one-masted ship and three sailing galleys. These vessels all share one curious feature, their sails all show a rows of horizontal slits, possibly some sort of reefing rig. Additionally, the galley in the North Atlantic has one or two unusual horizontal poles emerging from its deck, while that pointing towards Japan seems to have a monstrous cannon mounted on its bow. Interestingly, only one of the ships is found below the Equator, a carrack in the South Atlantic, near the Straits of Magellan. Unfortunately, clumsy restoration and painting has obscured some of the details of this intrepid fleet.
Of course, the Giovio Globe shares depicts many of the same islands in roughly the same from as on the Mercator Globe, including, for example, tha Azores, Cuba and Zipangu. On the other hand, the Giovio Globe sometimes departs significantly from its Mercator predecessor. For instance, the curious island in the Atlantic off the Carolina Coast appears on both globes, unlabeled on the Mercator globe, but labeled Dou*a on the Giovio Globe. in its. In the Pacific, the Giovio Globe has several islands near the Equator, including one identified as Insula Latrans(?), that are absent from the Mercator Globe. Like many of the departures from its Mercator prototype, these strange islands may offer clues as to the origin of the Giovio Globes.
Engraving / Caligraphy
The symbols for mountains and forest differ markedly between the Giovio Globe and the Mercator globe. On the Giovio Globe, the mountains are uniformly shadowed on the right side while the converse is true on the Mercator Globe. On the Giovio Globe, the tree forms indicating forests have prominent trunks while the sprucelike trees on the Mercator globe appear trunkless.
The eastern hemisphere of the terrestrial globe, particularly in the north, is very dirty and somewhat difficult to read, but portions of the globe, notably North and South America and Antarctica are remarkably clean and legible. It is obvious that at some point the terrestrial globe underwent a thorough, if clumsy, restoration in which the oceans were painted blue, the continents were outlined in red, and other gold and red highlights were added. The celestial globe, as might be expected, shows less wear than its terrestrial counterpart, though there are some abrasion losses in those areas which would come in contract with the horizon ring. In addition, as with the oceans of the terrestrial globe, the sky of the celestial globe has also undergone a later painting, if in a more opaque blue than that of its terrestrial counterpart. That this later painting does not reflect the original color of the globe’s sky can be seen in the few small areas of sky that the restorer overlooked as he applied his blue paint across the heavens.
The spheres with meridian rings are mounted in wooden stands. Each stand has four turned legs that support its horizon ring. When properly mounted in the stands, the spheres appear to sit a little high in their supports. Observe how the whole ensemble of sphere and stand seems just a bit top heavy, the equatorial rings of each sphere visible at a slightly uncomfortable interval above the horizon ring. This observation suggests that, perhaps, the spheres did not originally sit in their present stands.
An examination of the horizon rings, clearly not contemporary with the globes (see below), reinforces the suggestion that the globes and their stands are not contemporary. Both horizon rings are manuscript, not printed, with only the slightest of variation from one to the other. Each ring has three scales, each scale divided into 360 units. The innermost scale shows the zodiac. Between this zodiac scale and the middle scale is a ring in which names the months of the year. The middle scale seems to be a rather nonsensical calendar that counts, for instance, only 360 days in total but a surprising 31 days in February. Between the middle and outermost scale the names of the zodiac have been marked. The outermost scale is, again, degrees, marked with rather erratic numbering. These distinctly amateurish, manuscript horizon rings stand in direct contrast to the carefully engraved spheres. In addition, by comparing the calendar and zodiac scales, it can be seen that the zodiac scale begins at a date (March 20) which indicates the use of the Gregorian calendar, adopted in 1584. As all other analysis suggest a distinctly earlier date for both spheres, it seems almost certain that the horizon ring is not contemporary with the globes. Perhaps the original (Julian) ring was simply updated around the time of the calendar changeover. Or perhaps, as is often the case, the original ring was replaced on the stand after is wore out. Given the sloppy restorations made to both the celestial and terrestrial globe, it may be that the same hand that restored one or both of the globes created the horizon ring as well.
The present owner’s initial concerns that the Giovio Globes might be some kind of latter day copy/manufacture have been gradually dissipated over time for two principal reasons. First, on continued close inspection, the condition of the surface of the globes (including abrasions, repairs, overpainting, dirt and varnish) seem to be the result of the real process of aging. Second, certain important peculiarities of the New York globes would hardly fit with the idea of someone working to produce a set of fake globes. Such peculiarities would include:
It would appear, then, that the New York Globes are the real thing, a pair of heretofore unrecorded 16th century globes, possibly of North Italian origin. The celestial globe follows closely the outlines of Vopel’s 1536 globe, while the terrestrial globe follows Mercator’s 1541 globe. Yet both New York globes depart significantly from their respective prototypes, these departures offering further clues about their possible date and place of manufacture. For the moment, a date of 1550 to 1575 and a location of northern Italy seem the best guess. Avenues for further research on the New York globes would include the following:
Finally, a decision must be made relative to the current condition of the globes, which have both been the subject of some rather clumsy restoration. A program of conservation/restoration is most likely advisable and would reveal more information about the globes, but such a program should be undertaken only with great caution. Care must be taken to record the historical record of the object, particularly if that record is to be altered in the course of restoration.
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At the request of the present owner, the Manhattan galleries contacted the seller of the globe, who wished to remain anonymous. The seller stated that he had bough the globes in Milan in the 1950’s. A 1987 visit to Imbert’s Milan store produced no additional information, as the owner was not present at the time of the visit. Initial research at the Ordones de Rosales family archives confirmed that the globes were in the possession of that family, in a villa in Bernate in the 1930’s. The research also confirmed that the Ordones de Rosales family, particularly through their connection to the Cigilini family, had intermarried at several stages with descendents of Paolo Giovio. More work remains to be done in the Ordones de Rosales archives.
Just as with its geography, the toponymy of the Giovio Globe follows very closely that of its Mercator prototype, but with two very important exceptions.
Tthe Giovio Globe depicts a single animal, a opossum, in South America. A similar creature is found in the Mercator protptype, though the Giovio Globe opossum is distinguished by its more pendulous teats (See Waldseemuller’s 1516 Carta Marina for a likely source for both these images). In North America, the Giovio Globe show an extraordinary depiction of buffalos, a scene that is totally absent from Mercator’s globe. Also, unlike the Mercator globe, the Giovio globe shows numerous animals in Africa, in the area beneath the Niger Rive. These animals include two elephants, two lions, a leopard, a giraffe (?), two antelopes (?), a rhinoceros, a winged horse and several other unidentified creatures. In Northern Asia, the creator of the Giovio globe offers four narrative scenes. In the eastern steppes, a couple and their ox stand beside a yurt. To the north of this scene, a second, more numerous gathering of steppe peoples, together with their yurts, can be seen. Moving eastwards, a man, armed with sword and shield, fends off a huge ostrich-like bird.Finally, still further to the east, a caravan can be seen traversing a desert. Above the caravan hover two winged figure, doubtless the “deceptive spirits” mentioned in the 
As noted earlier, the lettering on the Giovio celestial globe follows closely, though not identically, that of its Vopel prototype. As for the Giovio terrestrial globe, its lettering appears, for the most part, to follow that of the Mercator Globe. On both terrestrial globes, the continents, principal regions, empires and principal countries are rendered in Roman capitals. Oceans and major seas are written in an elaborate Italic capital script, while all else is rendered in an italic cursive. One significant difference: the names of peoples, written in a distinctive continuous script on the Mercator globe, are simply not present on the Giovio Globe. And while the writing on the Giovio Globes, in a general sense, follows that of the Mercator Globes, it is clearly the work of a different hand. Again, these observations are those of an unpracticed eye and more expert observations are solicited.
Each globe is mounted in a brass meridian ring that is graduated on one side, clockwise and anticlockwise from north 90 degrees to 0 degrees, 0 degrees to 90 degrees, numbered every 10 degrees with divisions of 1 degree. Each meridian ring is surmounted by graduated hour circles with pointers that are, curiously, numbered from I to XII and then backwards from XII to I.
The legs are connected by two crossbeams which, in turn, carry a circular base plate with a central support for the meridian ring.